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INTRODUCTION
Maritime security is a significant concern for the global maritime industry, with various threats and challenges affecting the safety and security of ships, crew, and cargo. The industry has faced numerous security challenges in recent years, including piracy, armed robbery, and terrorism.
THREATS TO MARITIME SECURITY
The threats to maritime are categorized into traditional threats and emerging threats.
Traditional threats:
1. Piracy and Armed Robbery: Piracy remains a significant threat to maritime security, particularly in high-risk areas such as the Gulf of Aden and the Malacca Strait. These acts disrupt trade and instill fear in seafarers, hindering maritime activities. Piracy remains a persistent menace, particularly in regions like the Gulf of Guinea, where 130 seafarers were kidnapped in 2023 alone (ICC-IMB, 2024) [1]. These attacks disrupt shipping routes and increase insurance costs by up to 20% in high-risk areas (Smith & Turner, 2023) [2]. Maritime terrorism, though less frequent, carries catastrophic potential; the 2002 attack on the French oil tanker Limburg demonstrated how terrorists could target critical infrastructure, causing oil prices to spike by 5% overnight (Johnson, 2022). Cyber-attacks represent a growing threat as ships become more digitized. In 2023, a ransomware attack on a major shipping firm halted operations across 15 ports, costing $300 million in losses (Garcia & Lee, 2023) [3]. Illegal trafficking, drugs, arms, and humans also exploit maritime routes, with an estimated $150 billion in illicit goods smuggled annually via sea (UNODC, 2024) [4]. These threats collectively undermine economic stability and human security.
2. Oil theft (Illegal bunkering): the Niger Delta is rich in oil reserves and has become a ground for illegal bunkering. Criminals steal crude oil from pipelines and vessels causing environmental and economic losses (www.tandonline.com) [5] .
3. Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing: Foreign trawlers operate illegally and plunder Nigeria’s fish stock threatening the livelihoods of local fishermen and causing damage to the marine ecosystem. A case study of fish trawlers impoverishing fishers in Ilaje (https://earth journalism.net) [6] .
4. Smuggling: Nigeria’s porous borders are not properly guarded and can give access leading to the smuggling of arms, drugs and human beings.
Emerging Threats:
1. Maritime terrorism: the risk of terrorists targeting vital oil platforms and shipping routes remains a persistent danger, highlighting the fragile maturity of our maritime infrastructure
2. Environmental threats: oil spills from illegal bunkering and pollution from maritime activities wreak havoc in the ecosystem leaving a long-lasting impact on the environment.
3. Geopolitical factors: the socio-economic challenges in the Niger Delta and the influence of international criminal networks increase these threats.
CASE STUDY NIGERIA: The Oil Theft in Niger Delta
Nigeria, Africa’s largest oil producer, has grappled with oil theft since the discovery of petroleum in Oloibiri in 1956, an event that promised prosperity but instead birthed a complex saga of exploitation and crime (Frynas, 2000) [7]. Oil theft, often termed "illegal bunkering," involves the illicit extraction, refining, and sale of crude oil and petroleum products, costing Nigeria billions annually and fueling insecurity in the Niger Delta. This article traces the historical roots, pivotal developments, and ongoing narrative of oil theft in Nigeria, revealing a story of resource wealth marred by corruption, militancy, and environmental ruin.
Early Beginnings: The Seeds of Theft (1950s-1970s)
Oil theft in Nigeria emerged almost concurrently with commercial production. After Shell-BP struck oil in Oloibiri, Bayelsa State, in 1956, the region transitioned from subsistence farming to an oil economy, but local communities saw little benefit (Watts, 2007) [8]. By the late 1960s, small-scale pilfering began as locals tapped pipelines to siphon fuel for personal use, driven by poverty and neglect (Obi, 2010) [9]. This rudimentary theft laid the groundwork for more organized crime, though it remained sporadic during the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970), when oil infrastructure became a military target (Frynas, 2000) [10] .
Post-war, the 1970s oil boom saw Nigeria’s production soar to over 2 million barrels per day (bpd), but federal control of oil revenues under military regimes excluded Delta communities, fostering resentment (Katsouris & Sayne, 2013) [11]. Local youths began collaborating with corrupt officials to steal oil, selling it on black markets—a practice that grew with the industry’s expansion (Watts, 2007) [12] .
The Rise of Organized Theft: Militancy and Corruption (1980s-2000s) The 1980s marked a shift as oil theft evolved into a sophisticated enterprise. Economic decline and structural adjustment programs deepened poverty, pushing more Niger Delta residents into illegal bunkering (Obi, 2010 [13] . By the 1990s, armed groups like the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) emerged, blending militancy with oil theft as a form of protest against environmental degradation and marginalization (Katsouris & Sayne, 2013) [14]. MEND’s 2006 attacks on oil facilities, including the kidnapping of expatriates, highlighted the nexus between theft and insurgency (Asuni, 2009) [15] . Corruption became a linchpin of this era. Security forces, oil company employees, and political elites facilitated large-scale theft, with estimates suggesting 10% of Nigeria’s 2 million bpd production of about 200,000 bpd was stolen daily by the early 2000s (Human Rights Watch, 2003) [16] . Techniques like "hot-tapping" pipelines and diverting oil from export terminals underscored the growing professionalism of these networks (Katsouris & Sayne, 2013) [17]. The execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa in 1995, a vocal critic of oil exploitation, galvanized militancy, intertwining theft with a broader struggle for resource control (Frynas, 2000) [18] .
The Modern Era: Industrial-Scale Theft and Global Reach (2010s-Present) By the 2010s, oil theft reached industrial proportions, costing Nigeria $5-7 billion annually (Chatham House, 2013) [19]. The discovery of a 4-kilometer illegal pipeline from the Forcados terminal to the sea in 2022, operational for nine years, epitomized this scale, siphoning up to 250,000 bpd (Kyari, 2022) [20]. Thieves used barges and tankers to ship stolen crude to international markets in West Africa, the Balkans, and Asia, laundering proceeds through global financial hubs like London and New York. The Nigerian government’s 2009 amnesty program aimed to curb militancy by rehabilitating ex-fighters, but it inadvertently empowered figures like Government Ekpemupolo (Tompolo), a former militant-turned-security contractor. Tompolo’s 2022 revelations implicated military and oil officials in theft, a claim echoed by Rivers State Governor Nyesom Wike, who accused security personnel of complicity (BBC, 2022) [21] . Meanwhile, illegal refineries proliferated, with 63 dismantled in a single week in 2024, alongside the seizure of over 198,000 liters of stolen crude (OCCRP, 2024) [22] .
Oil theft has devastated Nigeria’s economy, slashing output from 2.5 million bpd in 2011 to just over 1 million bpd in 2022 (NNPC, 2022) [23] . The environmental toll is equally severe, with oil spills from sabotage polluting rivers and farmland, reducing life expectancy in the Delta to 47 years (Monnet, 2023) [24] . Socially, it sustains a cycle of poverty and violence, as communities turn to theft for survival amid government neglect.
Efforts to curb theft—naval patrols, drone surveillance, and fuel marking—have yielded mixed results, recovering 21 million liters of crude in three months in 2024 (VerivAfrica, 2025) [25] . Yet, systemic corruption and international collusion perpetuate the crisis, with stolen oil dubbed “blood oil” by former Oil Minister Diezani Alison-Madueke (Reuters, 2013) [26]. Today, Nigeria’s story of oil theft remains one of resilience and betrayal, a cautionary tale of resource wealth squandered.
CHALLENGES TO MARITIME SECURITY
Combating these threats is fraught with obstacles. Jurisdictional complexity hampers enforcement, as 70% of the world’s oceans lie beyond national boundaries, limiting legal authority (Taylor, 2023) [27]. Resource constraints further complicate responses; many coastal nations lack the naval assets to patrol expansive exclusive economic zones (EEZs), which can span 200 nautical miles (Kumar & Patel, 2022) [28]. For instance, Somalia’s 3,300-kilometer coastline remains a piracy hotspot due to inadequate surveillance.
Technological vulnerabilities exacerbate the challenge.
Modern ships rely on interconnected systems like the Automatic Identification System (AIS), which hackers can spoof to mislead authorities, as seen in a 2022 incident off Yemen. Moreover, international cooperation is often stymied by political tensions; competing claims in the South China Sea, for example, hinder joint security efforts (Wang, 2024) [29].
Key challenges to maritime security include:
1. Lack of Coordination: Lack of coordination between different stakeholders, including governments, shipping companies, and security agencies, can hinder effective maritime security.
2. Limited Resources: Limited resources, including funding and personnel, can limit the effectiveness of maritime security measures.
3. Complexity of Maritime Operations: The complexity of maritime operations, including the movement of ships and cargo, can make it difficult to ensure maritime security.
SOLUTIONS TO MARITIME SECURITY CONCERNS
Effective solutions require a blend of technology, policy, and collaboration. Deploying drones has proven successful in monitoring piracy-prone waters; in 2023, Nigerian forces used UAVs to reduce incidents in the Gulf of Guinea by 35%. Satellite surveillance complements this, providing real-time tracking of vessels across vast oceans.
Cybersecurity measures are equally vital. The IMO’s 2021 guidelines mandate that shipping companies implement risk management frameworks, reducing cyber incidents by 25% among compliant firms (IMO, 2024) [30]. Naval coalitions, such as the Combined Maritime Forces (CMF), enhance deterrence; their patrols in the Arabian Sea cut piracy attacks by 50% between 2020 and 2023. Additionally, capacity-building programs, like the EU’s support for East Africa Some of the key solutions to maritime security concerns include:
1. International Cooperation: International cooperation between governments, shipping companies, and security agencies is critical to effective maritime security.
2. Improved Coordination: Improved coordination between different stakeholders can help to ensure effective maritime security (nimasa.gov.ng)
3. Increased Resources: Increased resources, including funding and personnel, can help to improve maritime security.
4. Use of Technology: The use of technology, including surveillance systems and encryption, can help to improve maritime security.
Footnotes
[1] ICC-IMB (2024). Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships: 2023 Annual Report. International Chamber of Commerce, London.
[2] Smith, J., & Turner, L. (2023). Piracy’s Economic Toll: A Global Perspective. Maritime Economics Journal, 19(1), 12-25.
[3] Garcia, M., & Lee, S. (2023). Cyber security in Maritime: Risks and Resilience. Journal of Maritime Security, 12(3), 45-59.
[4] UNODC (2024). World Drug Report 2024: Maritime Trafficking Trends. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna.
[5] Tandonline. www.tandonline.com
[6] Earth journalism. https://www.earth journalism.net
[7] Frynas, J. G. (2000). Oil in Nigeria: Conflict and Litigation between Oil Companies and Village Communities. London: LIT Verlag.
[8] Watts, M. (2007). Petro-Insurgency or Criminal Syndicate? Conflict & Violence in the Niger Delta. Review of African Political Economy, 34(114), 637-660.
[9] Obi, C. I. (2010). Oil as a ‘Curse’? The Niger Delta and the Challenges of Resource Control. Review of African Political Economy, 37(125), 363-379.
[10] Frynas, J. G. (2000). Oil in Nigeria: Conflict and Litigation between Oil Companies and Village Communities. London: LIT Verlag. [11] Katsouris, C., & Sayne, A. (2013). Nigeria’s Criminal Crude: International Options to Combat Oil Theft. Chatham House Report
[12] Watts, M. (2007). Petro-Insurgency or Criminal Syndicate? Conflict & Violence in the Niger Delta. Review of African Political Economy, 34(114), 637-660.
[13] Obi, C. I. (2010). Oil as a ‘Curse’? The Niger Delta and the Challenges of Resource Control. Review of African Political Economy, 37(125), 363-379.
[14] Katsouris, C., & Sayne, A. (2013). Nigeria’s Criminal Crude: International Options to Combat Oil Theft. Chatham House Report
[15] Asuni, J. B. (2009). Blood Oil in the Niger Delta. United States Institute of Peace, Special Report 229.
[16] Human Rights Watch. (2003). The Niger Delta: No Democratic Dividend. New York: HRW.
[17] Katsouris, C., & Sayne, A. (2013). Nigeria’s Criminal Crude: International Options to Combat Oil Theft. Chatham House Report.
[18] Frynas, J. G. (2000). Oil in Nigeria: Conflict and Litigation between Oil Companies and Village Communities. London: LIT Verlag.
[19] Chatham House. (2013). Nigeria’s Criminal Crude: International Options to Combat the Export of Stolen Oil. London: Chatham House.
[20] Kyari, M. (2022). Statement to Nigerian Parliamentary Committee on Forcados Pipeline Discovery. NNPC Ltd., October 6.
[21] BBC. (2022). Nigeria’s Stolen Oil, the Military and a Man Named Government. BBC News, October 23. [22] OCCRP. (2024). Nigeria Dismantles 63 Illegal Refineries. Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, August 16.
[23] NNPC. (2022). Oil Production Statistics: July 2022 Report. Nigerian National Petroleum Company Ltd.
[24] Monnet, B. (2023). Interview on Oil Theft and Piracy in the Niger Delta. Le Monde, February 22.
[25] VerivAfrica. (2025). Nigeria’s Oil Theft Crisis: Insights by Murtala Abdullahi. VerivAfrica, February 21.
[26] Reuters. (2013). Nigeria’s Stolen Oil is Sold and Laundered Abroad: Report. Reuters, September 19.
[27] Taylor, K. (2023). Jurisdictional Challenges in Maritime Security. International Law Review, 20(5), 67-80.
[28] Kumar, R., & Patel, N. (2022). Technology in Maritime Security: Drones and Beyond. Ocean Policy Review, 15(4), 22-30.
29] Wang, H. (2024). South China Sea: Security Implications. Asian Geopolitics Journal, 11(2), 55-70.
[30] IMO (2024). Maritime Cybersecurity Guidelines: Progress and Impact. International Maritime Organization, London.
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